My video experience

First of all I was aware that I had to prepare an everyday class considering the time and my students. Thus, it had to be brief and entertaining in order to succeed.
I decided to start with a brief review of what will come next to make sure transition from one activity to the next one will be smooth.
The warm-up was intended to introduce the topic and use of the new language. I felt very pleased to see that they remembered countables and uncountables.
At this stage students use their schemata and are aware of learnt concepts (Harmer, 1991). Also I always kept in mind giving instructions when needed being these clear and loud.
As my group is a pre-intermediate one I considered not forcing students because if I did, acquisition of the language will be blocked (Brown, 1994). I constantly tried to elicit answers from them. Thus, their participation during the warm-up was free.
After the students have been introduced to the structure, they were given opportunities to interact with their peers in some kind of discourse and focus their attention on the activity asked. Most of the drills were controlled to let them go from accuracy to fluency.
I intended to present grammar in an inductive approach trying to keep natural language as I think it is a better way of acquiring the rules subconsciously and students feel relaxed not being overwhelmed by grammatical explanations (Brown, 1994). In addition, it is a way to motivate students allowing them to discover the rules rather than to give them everything.
I think the lesson was very interesting because it is a real situation that may happen to all of us. We have to be aware of our health. It was presented in both reading and speaking approaches, as well as corrections to students, were done by themselves while they were working in pairs and then by me. This is useful for accuracy work and to let them understand the meaning of the new language they are learning (Harmer, 1991). Judith Quintana Vessi

To Alma

Would it be a useful idea to use resources in order to take advantage of the time?
Of course it would be a useful idea to use resources in order to take advantage of the time. The reason is because the education of today demands to the teacher to be updated in the use of didactic materials or resources to support the exhibition of classes or save time to make more communicative tasks.

However, we should use them when the resources are adequate for the formative context; when they agree with contents and satisfy the needs of the Ss. Also when the time of the class is extremely reduced saving time is essential. Likewise, when we know the characteristics of our students with whom we will use cognitive capacities, styles, interest, previous knowledge, experience and abilities.

Therefore, I strongly believe that all of these resources are important since they help the students to understand better the information given, besides saving time in order to spend it in more communicative tasks. For all these reasons, teachers should use a series of aids that facilitate their task of education so that significant learning is produced in their students.

why do you think the T didn’t have enough time for the grammar section?
I think he didn’t have enough time for the grammar section because he didn’t even remember how his lesson plan had been elaborated. I considered this because it was as if the prepositions came to his mind and he wrote them, instead of preparing them beforehand to have a better structure of his class. I insisted many times that I did not see any preparation on his part which is crucial in the learning teaching process. If the class would have been well prepared, I believe the time for grammar section would have been sufficient.

Vian

SOURCES:
• UR, PENNY (1999): A course in Language Teaching “Practice and Theory” Cambridge University Press
• DOFF, ADRIAN “Teach English” Cambridge University Press
• SCRIVENER, JIM “Learning Teaching”, Ed. Macmillan Published Limited

References Peer observation

References:

Corbett, J. (2000) What is grammar and how Should we teach it ?, Developing Teachers, retrieved March 12th from http://www.developingteachers.com/index.htm

Harmer, J. (1991) The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman, UK

Nunan, D. (1998) Language Teaching Methodology, Longman

Nunan, D. Teaching grammar in context, ELT Journal 52/2 April 1998

Richards, J. & C. Lockhart (1996), Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classroom, Cambridge University Press

Thornbury, S. (1999) How to teach grammar, Longman

Ur, P. (1999) Grammar Practice Activities, CUP

Class Observed by Judith

EXECUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE LESSON
Name of the observer Judith Quintana Vessi

Date and time of observation April 6th, 2010 10:00 a.m.

Level of the group Beginners

Length of class 50 minutes

Age 17 to 45 years old - 15 students

Class profile The majority of the students in this class are good students, nevertheless there are two ladies that have to make a great effort.
It is a public school

Recent work - Habits and routines
- Present continuous

General Objectives/Aims a. By the end of the lesson students
will have improved pronunciation.
b. By the end of the lesson students
will differentiate between present
simple and continuous.
c. Learn new vocabulary words
about towns and cities.
d. Answer questions about touristic
attractions.
e. Work in pairs and individually.

Personal Objectives a. To follow activities properly.
b. To improve giving instructions to
students.
c. To have a good balance of
activities.
d. To motivate students using a
variety of expressions. e.g. very
good, excellent, etc.
e. To give them proper feedback.

Assumptions a. T assumes that students will
understand instructions
b. T assumes that students will be
able to develop activities and
answer questions accurately.
c. Sts. are going to be able to
predict about a theme.
d. T assumes time will be well
organized.

T gives clear instructions and models of English language usage T gives clear instructions and contrasts habits and routines with actions done now.
Sometimes T uses Spanish to make sure sts have understood.
T compares Mexican culture with British, introducing the new culture learnt.

T gives effective teacher/pupil interaction (respect, addresses sts. properly, motivate them, etc.) T is patience as she waits for student’s participation giving them plenty of time to reflect and then answer.
Sometimes T comments ironically about exercises in the book and makes students laugh.
T didn’t address to sts. by their names; thus, they had to be very attentive on how she will ask them to interact.
T was constantly motivating sts participation and answering questions.
Sts felt comfortable with the teacher as they could ask her their doubts. But above all, the teacher clarified questions.

T develops organization and management of the whole class Lead-in. T gave a brief listening exercise to introduce the topic. - A big city.

Warm-up. T let students comment about the topic. -A big city.


Pre-activity: T. gave students vocabulary about towns and cities.

Activities: Drills and written exercises. On the book and extra material.

Wrap-up activity: Sts have to fill in a photocopy where they were given a present simple and continuous grammar exercise.
Afterwards, students were also asked to do a communicative exercise. In pairs, they had to compare and contrast a picture and find ten differences.

T uses a variety of activities T did mimics, explained in a positive way. Used funny expressions or cognates to let sts understand.

T uses adequate materials and aids T used the board, book and extra exercises.

T gives support for understanding There was a situation where a student didn’t understand and T stated the difference between present simple and present continuous by giving several examples.
T urged the student to elicit the rule.

T gives opportunities for learners to apply their existing skills and knowledge T let sts interact freely. Students had the opportunity to improve their previous skills so as to increase their language and cultural knowledge by developing the activities given into the classroom.

T gives opportunities for developing English language use T let sts interact a lot. T used the L2 all the time and the sts were urged to understand and practice the language; for example, they had to use it when working in pairs.

T includes different approaches to teach grammar T used generative grammar as she included rules on phonology, morphology and syntax. Made sts drill and repeat when needed.
T included communicative language teaching as she urged sts. to use the grammar and vocabulary while drilling in pairs.
T used pedagogical grammar although she had a limited time to teach the language.
T let sts become independent while they were working in pairs; either answering written exercises or communicating.
T swaped places sitting weak sts with strong sts; thus, they corrected themselves and developed a higher proficiency.
T went round monitoring or gave advice to those sts who needed it in order to succeed.
T demonstrated to be a very experienced teacher as she introduced the grammatical rule inductively and let sts explore the rule.

T provides opportunities for peer group interaction T let sts compare answers before correcting them.
Some of them were aware of their mistakes before checking while they compared with their peers.

T gives effective monitoring of learning T considered all sts; even those who were sitting at the back of the classroom.
T provides a sensitive environment for individual learners and their communicative needs T seemed relaxed and asked sts to work in pairs most of the class.
T helped sts when they asked to.
T general performance (voice- strong or soft-, pronunciation, monitoring, sitting down, T monitored, passed around the classroom and explained more things about the theme.
T has a clear soft voice.
Most of the time she was standing up.

T provides adequate feedback to sts. T let sts give reasons for their answers and then gave them the correct answer.
T let others sts participate.
T explains after they finish their activity.
T didn’t interrupt.


T provides a sensitive environment for individual learners and their communicative needs T makes ironic and silly comments and sts laugh.

One of her sts asked to leave earlier and T let her leave the classroom giving her a recommendation about the homework.

After observation
I noticed that: Sometimes all sts spoke because there was not a dynamic on how they could participate. They didn’t raise their hands.
Specially during the warm-up where sts comment about the big city.

I observed that: T used the board in a very limited way. Some of the sts’ doubts were the same but T didn’t take advantage of the board giving a general explanation.
She wasted time there.
The reason why… I believe the reason was because she wanted to make sure sts understood clearly.

The purpose of this activity

The purpose of this activity is to carry out an observation of an English class of a colleague of us where different perspectives of grammar can be identified.

CLASS OBSERVED BY VIANEY

EXECUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF AN ENGLISH LESSON CLASS


Name of the observer: VIANEY AMERICA FRANCO HERRERA. 0725130
LESSON PLAN

DATE OF OBSERVATION: April 8th, 2010
LEVEL OF THE GROUP: Elementary grown up people
LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY: Basic since they are beginners.
LENGTH OF CLASS: 60 minutes
NO. OF STUDENTS: 6 (3 women and 3 men)
AGE: 17 to 55 years old.
TYPE OF SCHOOL: Public School

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Most of the students come from different backgrounds as well as different types of schools. The group is made up of 2 old men, 3 teenagers and 1 mature woman who are interested in learning English in this basic workshop. All like to listen to English music and want to learn this language.

ENVIRONMENTAL CLUES: This class takes place from 5 p. m. to 6 p. m.

MAIN GOALS: It will be a teacher centered lesson class and at the end of the session they will do an exercise of filling in the spaces in order to check their understanding about the topic. Besides, they will be able to give oral directions to others.

ASSUMPTIONS: Prepositions of place are already known by the students


TOPIC: Places in Town & There is- are

STRUCTURES: There’s a (place)…There are (place) …
There isn’t a… There aren’t any…
Is there a... (Place)? Are there any… (Place)? ...,
Yes, there’s a... (place) + Preposition of place

VOCABULARY: Places in Town (hospital, bank, convenient store, school, park, gas station, parking, museum, grocery store, hotel, movie theater, drugstore)/ Prepositions of place (next to, on, in front of, between, across from/ opposite, on the right, on the left, go down)

SOURCE OF MATERIAL: English in mind Student’s book Starter p. 38 & 39.

LESSON PROCEDURE:
10’: Whole class: Ss recall and get oral practice in using places of the town + prepositions of place. Use board drawing of a city map. Elicit where places are. Encourage Ss participation.

10’: Whole class: Ss listen to a dialogue and write names of places on a map. Practice the conversation in pairs.

15’: Pair work. Aim: Further oral practice. Ss improvise to extend the short dialogue and act out the scene. Groups watch each other.

10’: Whole class: Aim: pronunciation of th sounds.

15’: Reading: Students read about the city of Cambridge.

Homework: Ss write a text about their city or town.

CLASS OBSERVED
(MY PERSONAL COMMENTS)

TT GIVES CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS AND MODELS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE USAGE: At the beginning, teacher started with the pre-instructional brainstorming strategy to recall and get oral practice in using places of a town + prepositions of place. He asked Ss to give places as fast as they could. When they did not remember or did not know the word in English Tt mentioned it.

I have learned these pre-instructional strategies are established to activate or to generate knowledge before the pupils improving their connection with the new information; They serves as a leap to the knowledge of the pupils and to use such knowledge as base to create new learning. They foment a clear connection between previous knowledge and the new information to learn by means of an integrating process.

In this case, I will also use this kind of pre-instructional strategy at the beginning of the class. But, maybe the use of newspaper and magazine images or a power point presentation - could have been exploited in the explanation of this topic; since communicative approach also seeks to use authentic resources which make the class more interesting and motivating. What makes me think it is important not to be restricted to a white board or the book.

TT GIVES EFFECTIVE TEACHER/PUPIL INTERACTION (RESPECT, ADDRESSES SS. PROPERLY, MOTIVATES THEM, ETC.): Tt encouraged Ss participation all the time. Tt action zone was determined by everybody because all were nominated to take an active part in the class. There was an effective teacher pupil interaction due to that it is a reduced group. He addressed Ss properly and respectfully. He always used Ss names. Likewise, Tt allowed all Ss equal opportunities to participate therefore his interactional competence was excellent. In spite of the fact that Tt always motivated his Ss he also forced them to participate during the whole class.

I really think that the motivation is not something that a learner has or does not have but rather something that varies from one moment to the next, depending on the learning context or task. But, I am sure Tt attitudes and affective states have influence over the degree of effort that learners make to learn an L2.

During the class I observed Tt forced Ss to participate even though they were not ready to do it yet. For me, when a learner is not ready to talk and we push him it may have a detrimental effect due to he could lose the little confidence he has.

T PROVIDES OPPORTUNITIES FOR PEER GROUP INTERACTION: Tt grouping arrangements (pair work - filling the gap when listening to the CD passage and acting the role play) was right since through interaction between pairs, Ss can be given the opportunity to draw on their linguistic resources in a non-threatening situation and complete different kinds of tasks.

When the group is reduced, a round table is also properly to have more contact with the whole group and everybody could get benefits when dissipating doubts. This way, Tt would not spend too much time with only a couple as he did, unfortunately.

TT DEVELOPS ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE WHOLE CLASS: Tt presented the topic. He made use of brainstorming strategy to activate and generate knowledge before his pupils improving their connection with the new information. (10’) However, Tt spent too much time in this activity; maybe 5’ would have been enough.

Tt made use of a warm up because he “created a positive atmosphere to practice and experiment with the language. Here, he could call the student's attention; he brought back the vocabulary and knowledge Ss
already had learned. He could even anticipate the new vocabulary and structures.” (10’)(1) Nevertheless, it was as if the prepositions came to his mind and he wrote them, instead of preparing them beforehand to have a better structure of the class. I did not see any preparation on his part.

He made a good groping arrangement during the listening and filling the blank activities. Moreover, he spent more time than he expected (20’) maybe due to not preparing the class enough or perhaps because he did not remember the length of the listening passage. I insist, I did not see any kind of preparation.

In spite of the fact that, his activities were varied (brainstorming, listening passage, filling blanks, and role play) he only used four of the six planned items since he considered spending more time in oral practice (around 25’) performing a communicative output activity such as role play, which allowed students to practice at least this ability. Nevertheless, I counted 65 minutes instead of the 60 minutes that considered in his lesson plan. In addition, there was not homework to practice the new structures. Again, I did not see preparation by his part.

On the other hand, I know that “teaching involves making a great number of individual decisions”. (2) These decisions are made before (“planning decisions”), during (“interactive decisions”) and after teaching (“evaluative decisions”). However, I could notice that his planning decisions were made years ago, and he did not worry about preparing his class again. He jumped from one stage to another without having a real connection between the stages.

During the lesson itself, Tt had to make use of interactive decisions and decide how much time he had to add both in listening and oral activities due to the Ss needs. I felt the time spent was not really taken into account and he just wanted to finish the activity with no real objective.

About his evaluative decisions, Tt told me he felt pleased with his labor even though he did not finish his entire lesson plan. Therefore, there was not a wrap-up activity, unfortunately, the class time was over. But I think, how can we feel pleased if we did not convey knowledge correctly? How can we feel pleased if we do not get a real and meaningful goal at the end of the class?

In general terms, I did not like the class, because there was neither a real learning nor a good feedback. Sometimes, I was yawning with boredom because the activities seemed not to have ending.

TT USES A VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES: Teachers, in general, plan activities designed to facilitate the learners’ acquisition and use of the target language. In that context, an activity “is described as a task that has been selected to achieve a particular teaching/learning goal” (Richards: 1996) (3)

I consider that as teachers we use in our class one type of activity more often than another due to its utility and according to our Ss needs. Furthermore, when we are good teachers we worry about the activities we design or prepare in order to develop or maintain in our Ss any kind of motivation they feel. Nevertheless, in this case, the activities seemed not to be prepared or selected correctly by the Tt.

TT USES ADEQUATE MATERIALS AND AIDS: I think he did use the available materials. He used white board, book, cd- player, and cd (from the English in mind Student’s book Starter) because it was easy this way, especially if he did not prepare his lesson in advance. However, I insist that the use of newspaper and magazine images or a power point presentation - could have been also exploited in the presentation of this topic. Perhaps, I would have used a power point presentation. First, I would have pointed out a specific and colorful item once such as a school or a hotel in different parts of a neighborhood, so that my Ss could practice.

TT GIVES SUPPORT FOR UNDERSTANDING: MAYBE YES, but I never listened to him giving support for understanding when realizing the play role, for example. I saw Tt was moving from one side to another and talked with his Ss in Spanish most of time.

From my point of view, in order to give Ss support for understanding our role should be as an assistant, “helping them along”; and as a resource, “being available for information and guidance” (4) Furthermore giving an effective monitoring of learning.

Additionally, when a Tt corrects Ss in oral practice, he should make sure Ss “understand where the mistakes are and how they can be corrected” in order not to make the same mistake next time. (5) But in his case, he never corrected the Ss mistakes. Therefore, they made the same mistake again and again. I am aware that constant correction is unnecessary, but if a learner is not corrected at the third time s/he will think s/he is talking correctly and it is not true.

TT GIVES OPPORTUNITIES FOR LEARNERS TO APPLY THEIR EXISTING SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE: I considered Ss did not provide a previous knowledge of the places. They said the words in Spanish and Tt translated the words. Maybe in a previous lesson I would have given some place words in order to be familiar with them. And then I will also recall those words at the beginning of this lesson. This way I could have said that Ss would apply their existing vocabulary and knowledge.

TT GIVES OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPING ENGLISH LANGUAGE USE. (HOW THE GRAMMAR OR VOCABULARY GETS USED): He gave opportunities for developing English language use. He established the use/ pragmatics of English language, it is to say, when and why is used There is a + place + preposition. Also, when his Ss practiced a short dialogue or when they played the role of tourist and citizen. (social context created by interlocutors)

TT INCLUDES DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO TEACH GRAMMAR:
HE DID INCLUDE DIFFERENT APPROACHES. Traditional Grammar, for example, consists on giving brief explanations about rules and concepts with reference to the structure of language. Therefore, Tt taught the structure of There is a+ place+ preposition to memorize the model and the order of the words (Traditional Grammar).

Besides, syntax is concerned with how individual words are put together to make sentences. Hence, all words are classified into categories such as: Expletive subjects (There), verb (to be- is, are), nouns (places), and prepositions (next to, on, in front of, between, across from/ opposite, on the right, on the left, go down), as he explained.

There was no Ss freedom to predict, guess or generate sentences as in the case of “generative grammar”. But, he paid attention to syntax (structure of the sentences) and semantics (the study of linguistic meaning) Therefore, he also used Generative Grammar, in spite of the fact he wrote in his lesson plan to practice the sound th (phonology), it was not possible due to that the time was up, as I told you before. Yet, I would consider that this activity is a waste of time in the case of a grammar lesson.

In addition, he used pedagogical grammar because it is designed to teach someone; how and when to use a language, as he did appropriately explaining when *there is/there are* are used. Moreover, this kind of grammar is organized according to usefulness and ease of learning. As I explained previously, the topic was easy and it has a real usefulness when a tourist comes to our city and s/he does not know how to arrive some place or if s/he is near the place S/he is looking for.

Also, pedagogical grammar contains chapters which tend to be short and contain very brief grammatical explanations. (Even though, I would consider that apart from memorizing the model, he also gave Ss a brief grammatical explanation in Spanish which, for me, was extremely useful for clarification and instruction). Finally, this kind of grammar is written for anyone who is interested in learning a language and in this case, all the Ss are eager in learning English.

About the communicative method, which is much more pupil-orientated; it is dictated by pupils' needs and interests. I am pretty sure he made a great effort Ss were able to convey their thoughts. But the class was always Tt centered.

On the other hand, I could see that the classroom activities did not maximize opportunities for learners to use target language in a communicative way for meaningful activities. I could also notice that Tt let them talk and express themselves but completely in Spanish. However, I could see Tt generated in his Ss the spontaneity when they tried to answer applying any kind of knowledge.

And the last but not the least, Tt used Deductive/Overt Grammar because Tt was explicit and opened about the grammar of the language. He provided Ss with grammatical rules and explanations. Then, he asked the students to answer a listening exercise. Finally, he asked Ss to perform a role play (tourist and citizen).

About the Deductive and Inductive Methods -- Grammar teaching - of both the overt and covert kind - has a real and essential place in the classroom. Though, the teacher is the only responsible one to decide which approach to choose depending on the age, learning and cognitive styles, social and cultural factors, or needs of his/her students.

REFERENCES:

Hernández, Gerardo & Frida Díaz (2002), “Estrategias Docentes para un Aprendizaje Significativo” 2nd Ed. Printed 2007(p.138-345).Ed. McGraw Hill.

Richards, J.C. and Lockhart, CH., (1996). “Reflective teaching in Second Language Classrooms”. Cambridge: UK. Cambridge University Press. pp.138-160

Pienemann, M (1984) “Psychological constraints on the teachability language”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6, p. 186-214

Richards, J.C. and Lockhart, CH., (1996). “Reflective teaching in Second
Language Classrooms”. Cambridge: UK. Cambridge University Press. pp.152

(1)Richards, J.C., and Lockhart, Ch., (1996). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: UK. Cambridge University Press. p. 114.

(2) Richards, J.C., and Lockhart, Ch., (1996). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: UK. Cambridge University Press. p.78

(3)Richards, J.C., and Lockhart, Ch., (1996). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: UK. Cambridge University Press. p. 161.

(4) Harmer, J. (2004) “How to Teach English” Malaysia:, Longman, (p.109)

(5) Harmer, J. (2004) “How to Teach English” Malaysia:, Longman, (p.110)

Celce- Murcia M. (2001) "Teaching English as a Second Foreign Language". Heinle. P. 252

Soton (2008) “Introduction to traditional grammar” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://www.soton.ac.uk/~wpwt/notes/grammar.htm

Scribd (2007) “Transformative –Generative Grammar” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/240279/Transformative-Generative-Grammar

Tom McArthur (1998) Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language Retrieved 16th of March, from:
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-GRAMMAR.html

Glossary of Linguistic (2004) “what is a reference grammar?” Retrieved 21th of March, from: http://www.sil.org/LINGUISTICS/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAReferenceGrammar.htm

Harmer, J.(1987) "Teaching and Learning Grammar". Longman

Aber “Communicative Approach” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://www.aber.ac.uk/~mflwww/seclangacq/langteach9.html

Schema for evaluating the preparation, execution, and management of lessons taken from: Richards, J.C., and Lockhart, Ch., (1996). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: UK. Cambridge University Press. p. 96

Types of Grammar Practice.

Grammar practice is done in order to achieve accuracy and go on to fluency.
These steps are considered:
1. Awareness: After the learners have been introduced to the structure, they are given opportunities to encounter it within some kind of discourse, and do a task that focuses their attention on its form and meaning.

2. Controlled drills: Learners produce examples on the structure: these examples are, however, predetermined by the teacher or textbook, and have to conform to very clear, closed-ended cues. For example:
John drinks tea but he doesn’t drink coffee.
a) like: ice cream / cake
b) speak: English/Italian
c) enjoy: playing football / chess

3. Meaningful drills: Again the responses are very controlled, but learners can make a limited choice. For example:
In order to practice forms of the present simple tense:
Choose someone you know very well, and write down their name. Now compose true statements about them according to the following model:
He/ She likes ice cream; or He / She doesn’t like ice cream
a) enjoy: playing tennis
b) drink: wine
c) speak: polish

4. Guided, meaningful practice: Learners form sentences of their own according to a set pattern, but exactly what vocabulary they use is up to them. For example:
Practicing conditional clauses, learners are given the cue If I had a million dollars, and suggest, in speech or writing, what they would do.

5. Free sentence composition: Learners are provided with a visual or situational cue, and invited to compose their own responses; they are directed to use the structure. For example:
A picture showing a number of people doing different things is shown to the class; they describe it using the appropriate tense.

6. Discourse composition: Learners hold a discussion or write a passage according to a given task; they are directed to use at least some examples of the structure within the discourse. For example:
The class is given a dilemma situation in which they have to ask to recommend or give a solution. They are directed to include modals (might, should, must, can, could)

7. Free discourse: As in type 6, but the learners are given no specific direction to use the structure; however, the task situation is such that instances of it are likely to appear. For example:
As in type 6, but without the final direction.
This step is intended to be more proficient and demonstrate a higher lever of fluency.
Ur, P. (1999) Grammar Practice Activities, CUP

Grammar

Grammar is defined as the form in which the language is manipulated and combined to form units of meaning. For example, in English in the present simple the verb 'to be' has two forms: is for the singular and are for the plural.
Ur, P. (1999) Grammar Practice Activities, CUP

Pedagogical Grammar, according to Odlin, T (1994)

It is an axiomatic system where several fields are involved. The hybrid nature of pedagogical grammar works in numerous fields.

a) Instructional Time. - The time spent in the language classroom is not enough to acquire proficiency in a foreign language. Depending on the country the study of a foreign language will vary. Some countries start since elementary grades although others in higher levels.

b) Learner Independence. - Due to the fact that teachers cannot focus on each learner’s lack, they have to become independent in order to learn what is missing during their classroom hours.

c) Fossilization of knowledge.- Learners have to become analysts of the L2 in order to succeed in acquiring it as they will have to vary their strategies and not fall on fossilized errors. Findings have shown that higher proficient learners dedicate more time to master the language.

d) Expert Guidance. - It has been found that teacher’s explanations may help learners succeed; nevertheless, sometimes teacher’s urging learners to use determined structures before they are ready stops them from learning. Thus, teachers have to be cautious and observe the adequate time giving learners balanced communicative activities in both formal analysis and functional activities. In order to succeed teachers have to know what constitutes the grammatical system and how to explore it.

Knowledge of grammar has to do with the 1) products as rules; with 2) academic grammar related to the learner’s and professional linguistics needs; 3) grammar for teachers, which is being taught today, focusing on the usefulness for the learner and our experience, and 4) pedagogical grammar for learners.

Teachers define grammar differently but the word rule is always used, which is splitted in three: prescriptive, descriptive and pedagogical. That is, what we should say, what we say and what we teach. Nevertheless, this splitting has become a problem because we will always question which to highlight to the learner. Quite rightly a pedagogical rule gives them a guideline as what to use, but often it is over simplified and these may cause our students not to allow the language used with friends to be used with the same rules as those produced in the classroom.

Reference: Odlin, T, (1994) “Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar” Cambridge pages 7-14

Mental Grammar

The rules and principles that govern a language are almost all acquired in childhood; they are all “in the heads of native speakers” This grammar cannot be observed, what can be observed is the output of this mental process.

Reference: Books Google “Pedagogical Grammar” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://books.google.com.mx/books?hl=es&lr=&id=TbI8AdapFNAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA72&dq=pedagogical+grammar&ots=vAELuJAh3b&sig=vnXFTtEgeTaVGocwHqRXP3fbUek#PPA5, M1

Descriptive Grammar

It accounts not only to syntax and morphology but also phonetics and morphology, as well as semantics and /or lexis (vocabulary). (Odlin, T. 1994:3)They focus on non standard dialects. It provides information about the wide range of structures in a language. (Odlin, T. 1994:4)

Reference: Odlin, T, (1994) “Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar” Cambridge p. 3-4

Prescriptive Grammar

It focuses on the rules and makes possible the standardization of languages to make communication easier between different dialect regions. (Odlin, T. 1994:2)

Reference: Odlin, T, (1994) “Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar” Cambridge p. 2

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It gives specific names and definitions to parts of speech such as: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections or exclamations.

Reference: Soton (2008) “Introduction to traditional grammar” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://www.soton.ac.uk/~wpwt/notes/grammar.htm

Communicative Approach

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages” or simply the “communicative approach”.

Reference: Wikipedia.org (2010) “Communicative Language Teaching” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_language_teaching

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This movement flourished in 1970's and 80's - raised pupils' motivation through short-term objectives and through teaching language appropriate to a range of relevant topics and situations (e.g. shopping/ hobbies/ exchanges).

1 Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognizes that all communication has a social purpose - learner has something to say or find out.

5 Classroom activities maximize opportunities for learners to use target language in a communicative way for meaningful activities. Emphasis on meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than form (correctness of language and language structure) - as in first language acquisition.

7 Communicative approach is much more pupil-orientated, because dictated by pupils' needs and interests.

8 Accent is on functional/ usable language. Learners should be able to go to foreign country, prepared for reality they encounter there. Need to be able to cope / survive in a variety of everyday situations.

11 Primacy of oral work. Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the classroom. Contact time with language is all-important - paves way for more fluid command of the language / facility and ease of expression. Not just hearing teacher, but having personal contact them with language, practicing sounds themselves, per mutating sentence patterns and getting chance to make mistakes and learn from doing so.

12 Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive. Correction should be discreet / noted by teacher - let them talk and express themselves - form of language becomes secondary.

13 Communicative approach is not just limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils' confidence in all four skill areas. By using elements encountered in variety of ways (reading/ summarizing/ translating/ discussion/ debates) - makes language more fluid and pupils' manipulation of language more fluent.

14 Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways alongside more innovative approaches. Recognize that communication depends on grammar. Disregard of grammatical form will virtually guarantee breakdown in communication.

15 Language analysis and grammar explanation may help some learners, but extensive experience of target language helps everyone. Pupils need to hear plenty said about the topic in the foreign language at regular and recurrent intervals, so they are exposed to the topic and can assimilate it. (Not mere passive acquisition of certain lexical items).

16 Communicative approach seeks to personalize and localize language and adapt it to interests of pupils. Meaningful language is always more easily retained by learners.

18 Makes use of topical items with which pupils are already familiar in their own language - motivates pupils arouses their interest and leads to more active participation.

19 Avoid age-old texts - materials must relate to pupils' own lives / must be fresh and real (cf. Whit marsh texts developing language but not communicative language!) Changing texts and materials regularly keeps teacher on toes and pupils interested.

21 Spontaneous and improvised practice help to make minds more flexible and inspire confidence in coping with unforeseen, unanticipated situations. Need to 'go off at tangents' / use different registers / develop alternative ways of saying things.

22 Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources. More interesting and motivating. In Foreign language classroom authentic texts serve as partial substitute for community of native speaker. Newspaper and magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos, news bulletins, discussion program - all can be exploited in variety of ways.

23 Important not to be restricted to textbook never feels that text-book must be used from cover to cover. With a little inspiration and imagination, text-book can be manipulated and rendered more communicative. Teacher must free himself from it, rely more on his own command of language and his professional expertise as to what linguistic items, idioms, phrases, words, need to be drilled / exploited/ extended.

24 Use of visual stimuli - OHP/ flashcards, etc - important to provoke practical communicative language. (3 stages presentation / assimilation/ reproducing language in creative and spontaneous way).

Visual resources can be exploited at whatever level one wishes - help to motivate and focus pupils' attention.

Reference: Aber “Communicative Approach” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://www.aber.ac.uk/~mflwww/seclangacq/langteach9.html

Pedagogical Grammar

Pedagogical grammar is quite new in applied linguistics. It incorporates the perspectives of foreign language acquisition, i.e. learner-oriented, with those of language teaching, i.e. teacher-oriented. Thus, it focuses on the sequencing of different grammatical structures based on the frequency of L2 language use and learner errors, the complexity of the target language, the cognitive distance of the learners, and pedagogy.

Pedagogical grammar denotes the types of grammatical analysis and instruction designed for the needs of second language students.

Reference: TOM McARTHUR (1998) Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language Retrieved 16th of March, from:
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-GRAMMAR.html

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Grammar that serves teaching functions. It provides an understanding of English language Principles. This grammar should be able to explain why things happen in such ways when using language.

Retrieved 16th of March from the power point presentation

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Even, one of the central tasks of pedagogical grammar is the formulation of rules, in the broad sense of language statement of language regularities... As to knowledge of grammar, a three-way distinction has also been made. With academic grammar (theoretical and descriptive: relevant to the needs of professional linguistic and university students), grammar for teachers, and pedagogical grammar (for learners) (Leech 1991 cited by Odlin, T, 1994: 73-74) In this analysis, teachers’ knowledge of grammar is seen both as mediating between the other two and as including specific requirements absents in the others, suggesting that teachers may need to “know” more, or different, things than students, professional linguistic or learners.

Reference: Odlin, T, (1994) “Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar” Cambridge

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*****What distinguishes Pedagogical Grammar ****

It is designed to teach someone how to use a language.
It is organized according to usefulness and ease of learning.
It contains chapters which tend to be short and contain very brief grammatical explanations.
It contains chapters which consist mostly of exercises that help the reader practice and internalize the various structures as well as vocabulary and pronunciation.
It is written for anyone who is interested in learning a language.

Reference: Glossary of Linguistic (2004) “what is a reference grammar?” Retrieved 21th of March, from: http://www.sil.org/LINGUISTICS/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAReferenceGrammar.htm

Generative Grammar

It must generate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language. To generate is to predict what can be sentences of the language or to specify precisely what the possible sentences of the language are. Thus “generative grammar” should generate, specify and predict sentences such as: “He plays the piano.” But not: “Plays the piano he” or “He the piano plays”

In addition, the basic areas of study include phonology (the study of the sound patterns of language), morphology (the study of the structure and meaning of words), syntax (the study of the structure of sentences), and semantics (the study of linguistic meaning).

Reference: Scribd (2007) “Transformative –Generative Grammar” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/240279/Transformative-Generative-Grammar

Transformational Grammar

It states how the structures of many sentences in languages can be generated or explained formally as the result of specific transformations applied to certain basic structures. There are active sentences and from them, we can make transformations which are passive sentences.


Reference: Scribd (2007) “Transformative –Generative Grammar” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/240279/Transformative-Generative-Grammar

Traditional Grammar

Traditional grammarians made sure that all words served a single purpose.

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Grammar deals with two aspects of language, accidence and syntax. Accidence is mainly concerned with how individual words vary in form according to their grammatical function: e.g. book, books; write, wrote. This variation in form is known as inflexion.

While Syntax is concerned with how individual words are put together to make sentences. Therefore, all words can be classified into 9 categories: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections or exclamations. The sentence is a self-contained syntactical unit. It is traditionally divided into two parts: subject (that of which something is thought) and predicate (tells what is thought)

Reference: Soton (2008) “Introduction to traditional grammar” Retrieved 16th of March, from: http://www.soton.ac.uk/~wpwt/notes/grammar.htm

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